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1. Charles M. Benbrook et al., Pest Management at the Crossroads (Yonkers, N.Y.: Consumers Union, 1996), chapter 3.
2. League of Women Voters Education Fund, America's Growing Dilemma: Pesticides in Food and
Water (Washington, D.C., 1989), 1. Some earlier attempts to control insects, however, were not so benign. For example, in the late 1890s, efforts to control the gypsy moth relied on
widespread use of arsenic-based sprays, including lead arsenate. Mark L. Winston, Nature Wars: People v. Pests (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), 24-26.
3. Lewis Regenstein, America the Poisoned (Washington, D.C.: Acropolis Books, 1982), 103.
4. Estimates, survey models, and differences in assumptions lead to wide variations among
reports of pesticide use in a given period. A recent study found that the total amount of pesticides reported in the 1991 National Agriculture Statistics Service report was about 60 percent
of the agricultural pesticides used that same year as reported by the EPA's estimates. National Agriculture Statistics Service estimates for pesticides used on cotton in California in 1991
varied from 66 percent less to 511 percent more than the amounts of pesticides reported by applicators. W. S. Pease, J. Liebman, D. Landy, and D. Albright, Pesticide Use in California:
Strategies for Reducing Environmental Health Impacts, California Policy Seminar (Berkeley, 1996), Appendix II.
5. Audrey Thier, A Review of Pesticide Use Reporting Policies (April 1997), available from the
Texas Center for Policy Studies.
6. Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage: 1996 and 1997 Market Estimates (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Biological and Economic Analysis Division, November 1999) www.epa,gove/oppfead1/publications/
7. Aspelin, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage, 3.
8. Aspelin, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage, 18.
9. See, e.g., Pesticides and the Immune System: The Public Health Risks (Washington, D.C.:
World Resources Institute, 1996); Theo Colborn et al., "Developmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals on Wildlife and Humans," Environmental Health Perspectives vol. 101
(1993):378-384.
10. Shelia Hoar Zahm, "Pesticides and Cancer," in Occupational Medicine: State of the Art
Reviews (Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, 1997), 274 (exposure of general population to pesticides);James C. Robinson et al., Pesticides in the Home and Community: Health Risks and Policy
Alternatives (Berkeley: School of Public Health, University of California, 1994), 9, 48-50.
11. National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989), 123.
12. See, e.g., Texas Department of Health, Fish Advisories and Bans (1997).
13. National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture, 20-50.
14. National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture, 121.
15. National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture, 121-123.
16. Frontline, "In Our Children's Food," produced/directed by Martin Koughan, Public Broadcasting Corp. (aired March 30, 1993).
17. Benbrook et al., Pest Management at the Crossroads, 50-53, citing EPA, "Pesticide
Resistance Management: Issue Paper for Pesticide Dialogue Committee Meeting," Office of Pesticide Programs, June 25, 1996.
18. Benbrook et al., Pest Management at the Crossroads, 125.
19. A. Blair et al., "Clues to Cancer Etiology from Studies of Farmers," Scandinavian Journal
of Work, Environment and Health 18, no. 4 (1992): 209-215.
20. Veterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam (Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press, 1993). Also see: National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture, 121; A. Blair et al., "Clues to Cancer Etiology from Studies of Farmers," 109-215.
21. John H. Cushman, Jr., "U.S. Reshaping Cancer Strategy as Incidence in Children Rises," New
York Times, September 29, 1997, A1, A13.
22. A 1995 study suggested that "use of home pesticides may be associated with some types of
childhood cancer." Jack K. Leiss and David P. Savitz, "Home Pesticide Use and Childhood Cancer: A Case-Control Study," American Journal of Public Health 85 (1995): 249-252, 249.
23. Christopher Campbell, Kert Davies, and Richard Wiles, "Overexposed: Organophosphate
Insecticides in Children's Food," (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Working Group, January 1998), 1, 34.
24. Campbell, Davies, and Wiles, "Overexposed," 33-43.
25. Charles M. Benbrook, Growing Doubt: A Primer on Pesticides Identified as Endocrine
Disrupters and/or Reproductive Toxicants (Washington, D.C.: National Campaign for Pesticide Policy Reform, 1996), 11-17. A recent study, however, did not find evidence that women exposed to
DDT—now banned—and PCBs, two known endocrine disruptors, suffered higher rates of breast cancer. David J. Hunter, "Plasma Organochlorine Levels and the Risk of Breast Cancer," New England
Journal of Medicine 337, no. 18 (October 30, 1997): 1253-1258.
26. Benbrook, Growing Doubt, 7-11.
27. Robinson et al., Pesticides in the Home and Community.
28. Texas Department of Agriculture laboratories also receive produce for testing from other states.
29. Lon Hatamiya, cover letter accompanying copy of USDA report, Pesticide Data Program: Summary of 1992 Data.
30. USDA, Agriculture Marketing Service, Pesticide Data Program: Summary of 1992 Data
(Washington, D.C., April 1994).
31. Environmental Working Group, Washed Contaminated Peeled (Washington, D.C., 1994).
32. USDA, Pesticide Data Program: Summary of 1992 Data.
33. USDA, Pesticide Data Program: Summary of 1992 Data.
34. Robinson et al., Pesticides in the Home and Community.
35. Aspelin, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage, 31.
36. Benbrook, Growing Doubt, 40-41; Robinson et al., Pesticides in the Home and Community, 19, 50.
37. Robinson et. al., Pesticides in the Home and Community, 22.
38. R. Lewis, "Human Exposure to Pesticides Used in and around the Household," EPA, Study
Prepared for the Task Force on Environmental Cancer and Heart and Lung Disease: Working Group on Exposure, August 20, 1989. Also: F. Immerman and J. L. Schaum, Nonoccupational Pesticide
Exposure Study (Research Triangle Park, N.C.: EPA, January 1990), 7-12.
39. R. Lewis et. al. "Evaluation of Methods for Monitoring the Potential Exposure of Small
Children to Pesticides in the Residential Environment," Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 26 (1994): 37-46.
40. Aspelin, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage, 12, 30.
41. Jerry Potter, "LPGA Learns Realities of Breast Cancer," USA Today, November 7, 1991, 1C;
Gregg Small, Parks Are for People, Not Poisons: A Citizen's Guide to Reducing Pesticide Use in Parks (San Francisco: Pesticide Watch Education Fund, 1997), 12-13.
42. Texas Agriculture Statistics Service, Texas Agricultural Statistics (Austin, Texas: Texas
Agricultural Statistics, 1995), 10.
43. Leonard P. Gianessi and James Earl Anderson, Pesticide Use in Texas Crop Production
(Washington, D.C.: National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, February 1995).
44. Gianessi and Anderson, Pesticide Use in Texas Crop Production, 4.
45. Aquatic herbicide application data, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, July 23, 1997;
available from author's files.
46. U.S. Geological Service, Water Quality Assessment of the Trinity River Basin, Texas:
Pesticides in Urban and Agricultural Streams, 1993-1995 Fact Sheet, 178-196 (Austin, July 1996).
47. Veronica Alaniz, "Fort Worth Plots Strategy against Fire Ants," Dallas Morning News, August 14, 1997.
48. Christina Maxwell, "Green Defense: Experts Recommend Organic Pesticides and Fertilizers,"
Fort Worth Star Telegram, April 21, 1997.
49. Associated Press, "Tree Deaths along Dallas Road Attributed to Herbicide Spraying," Austin
American-Statesman, August 21, 1997.
50. R. J. Zweiner and C. M. Ginsberg, "Organophosphate and Carbamate Poisoning in Infants and
Children," Pediatrics 81, no. 1 (January 1988): 121-126.
51. Frontline, "In Our Children's Food."
52. Regenstein, America the Poisoned, 118.
53. Audrey Thier, "A Review of Pesticide Use Reporting Policies," unpublished paper, April 1997, 9-10.
54. Benbrook et al., Pest Management, chapter 4.
55. National Research Council, Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993).
56. USDA, "Riskiest Pesticides Will Be Assessed First Under New Food Safety Act," Press Release, August 4, 1997.
57. Nervous-system impacts experienced by some of these workers include insomnia, weakness,
nervousness, forgetfulness, confusion, depression, memory loss, and poor performance on tests of reasoning and motor skills. National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture, 122. Office of
Technology Assessment, Neurotoxicity: Identifying and Controlling Poisons of the Nervous System (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Congress, April 1990), 283.
58. Tex. Rev. Civ. Stat. Ann. Art. 135b-6, Sec. 4G.
59. Tex. Rev. Civ. Stat. Ann. Art. 135b-6, Sec. 4H.
60. Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts, Breaking the Mold: New Ways To Govern Texas, vol. 2, pt. 2 (1991), NR 5.
61. League of Women Voters Education Fund, America's Growing Dilemma: Pesticides in Food and Water (Washington, D.C., 1989), 11.
62. National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture, 208.
63. Dr. Tom Fuchs, IPM Coordinator, Texas A&M Research and Extension Center at San Angelo,
interview with authors, June 1, 1994.
64. Texas Center for Policy Studies, Texas Environmental Almanac (Austin, 1995), 156-157.
65. Texas Structural Pest Control Act, Tex. Rev. Civ. Stat. Ann., Art. 135b-6, Secs. 4G and 4J.
66. Texas PIN and Consumers Union Southwest Regional Office, Pesticide Report Card: Texas
Schools Score from A to F in the Integrated Pest Management Program. September 1999."Where Cotton's King, Trouble Reigns," New York Times, October 9, 1998, A12.
67. Jeanne Russell, "USDA Scientist's Study Links Pesticides to Cotton Disaster," McAllen
Monitor, September 5, 1996, D1.
68. Doug Thompson, "Battling the Boll Weevil," Arkansas Democrat Gazette, March 3, 1996, G1.
69. Susan Warren, "For Cotton Farmers, Boll Weevil May Be Lesser of Two Evils," Wall Street
Journal, September 20, 1995, T1.
70. Jeanne Russell, "USDA Scientist's Study Links Pesticides to Cotton Disaster." In 1995, the
Texas Department of Agriculture began charging a fee for certification with a fee scale based on the size of the operation.
71. Organic farming is defined as a system of ecological soil management that relies on
building humus levels through crop rotation, recycling organic wastes, and applying balanced mineral amendments, and that uses, when necessary, mechanical, botanical, or biological controls
with minimum adverse effects on health and the environment. Organic fiber is defined as fiber that is produced under a system of organic farming and that is processed, packaged, transported,
and stored so as to maintain segregation and prevention of contamination from other fiber and from synthetic pesticides, prohibited defoliants, and/or desiccants. Organic food is defined as
food for human or livestock consumption that is produced under a system of organic farming and that is processed, packaged, transported and stored so as to retain maximum nutritional value
without the use of artificial preservatives, coloring or other additives, ionizing radiation, or prohibited materials. TDA, Marketing Division, information provided to author, 1998.
72. Texas Agricultural Statistics Service, information provided to author, 1998.
73. TDA, Marketing Division, phone interview with author, 2002.
74. TDA, Marketing Division, phone interview with author, 2002.
75. Southwest Regional Office of the Consumers Union, Pesticide Report Card: Texas Schools
Score from A to F in the Integrated Pest Management Program.(Austin: 1999)( www.txpin.org)
76. National Research Council, Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children,
Washington.D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993
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